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《语言学》课程简介

中文名称：英语语言学（英）

英文名称：English Linguistics

开课学院：外国语学院

课程代码：04632

学分：2

开课学期：第五学期

预修课程：基础英语、英语语法

课程类别：专业必修课

内容简介：英语语言学（英）是一门系统讲授英语语言基础理论知识的课程。它旨在培养学生运用语言理论分析具体语言实际的分析性和创造性思维能力。本课程的主要内容包括语音学；音系学；形态学；句法学；语义学和语用学等六个部分，这六个部分是语言学的核心内容。本课程采用启发式的教学方法，在帮助学生准确掌握课本知识的基础上，让学生对语言的理解上升至哲学层次并通过适当的语言案例分析强化学生对语言的理解。

《语言学》课程教学大纲

一、课程总述

课程名称	英语语言学（英）	课程代码	04632
课程性质	Compulsory	先修课程	基础英语，英语语法
总学时数	32	周学时数	2
开课院系	School of Foreign Languages	任课教师	王静
编写人	王静	编写时间	2010年8月
使用教材	戴炜栋，何兆熊，2002，《新编简明英语语言学教程》，上海：上海外语教育出版社
教学参考资料	1． Robins, R. H., 2000, General Linguistics, Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. 2. 高文成，2007，《语言学精要与学习指南》，北京：清华大学出版社 3．胡壮麟，2006，《语言学教程》，北京：北京大学出版社 4．杨信彰，2005，《语言学概论》，北京：高等教育出版社
课程教学目的	The course of Linguistics has four main aims: (i) to provide students with an overview of theoretical models, experimental methods and current issues in linguistics in relation to foreign language teaching and learning, (ii) to enable students to understand and assess current scientific debates in the field, (iii) to help students understand and appreciate the relationship between linguistic data and language learning and teaching theories and models, and (iv) to provide students with the necessary background for studying linguistics, discourse analysis or related topics at an advanced level.
课程教学要求	Students are expected to attend regularly, to participate as required, and to contribute actively to class discussions. Some reading may be expected in advance of a lecture, and will definitely be required afterwards so as to consolidate the understanding of the material and ideas presented in the lecture.
本课程的重点和难点	The important chapters are Linguistics, Phonetics, Phonology, Morphology, Syntax, Semantics, Pragmatics, Language Change, Language and Society, Language and Culture.The difficult areas lie in chapters ofLanguage Acquisition and Second Language Acquisition.
课程考试	1)Daily performance (20%); 2) Final Exam (80%);

-The combination of thesound and meaning of linguistic symbols is a social convention.

-there is no necessary or intrinsic connection between the symbols, and the meaning of the symbols

-Productivity refers to the property that language enables language users to produce or understand an indefinite number of sentences including novel sentences.

-No one will have difficulty in understanding the sentence: “the terrorists will bomb the railway of Tokyo tomorrow.”

•-Displacement is the property of language that enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place.people can talk about things present,absent,in the past, in the future.

-Language is passed on from generation to generation by learning rather by instinct.

-Phatic function refers to language used for establishing anatmosphere or maintaining social contact rather than for exchanging information or ideas.

-Greeting,farewells, and comments on the weather server the function. Such as, “How are you?”, “A nice day, isn’t it?”

-When language is used to get the hearer do something,it serves a directive function.

-Most imperative sentences are associated with this function. Such as in “come in, please.”, “Drop in any time you like.”

- Language serves an informative function when it is used to to give information about facts, tell what the speaker believes.

- Most declarative sentences, as well as rhetorical questions are used to serve this function.

-When language is used to get information from others, it serves an interrogative function.

-All the questions that expect answers serve this function. Such as , “what is your name?” or “Are you able to speak Japanese?”

-Expressive function is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings and attitudes of the speaker.

-In expressive function, language is used to evaluate and assert the speaker’s attitudes.

-Some ejaculations are the examples, such as, “oh, my God!” or “The man is leaving ,I wish to God he would go!”

-Evocative function is the use of language to create certain feeling in the hearer.

-Evocative function aims to amuse, startle, anger, soothe, worry, or please the hearer.

-Jokes, advertising, propaganda are used to serve the evocative function of language. Such as,

-When language is used to “do things”, , to perform actions, it serves the performative function.

-With the sentences being uttered, the act can be performed, such as, “I declare the exam is cancelled.” or ‘ I declare the class is over.”

Aim: Language is first perceived through its sounds.Thus the study of sounds is of great importance in linguistics.

Lips (labia唇),Teeth (dentes齿), Tooth-ridge (alveoli齿龈),Hard palate ( 硬腭)

Soft palate (velum软腭),Uvula （小舌),Tip of tongue （舌尖）,Blade of tongue (舌面), Front of tongue (舌前部),Back of tongue (舌后部),Tongue root (舌根)

Pharynx (声门),Vocal cords （声带),Nasal cavity （鼻腔）,Oral cavity （口腔）

Aim:Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.

Both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the same aspect of language -- the speech sounds. But while both are related to the study of sounds, they differ in their approach and focus. As we have seen in the last section, phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc.

A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. But a phone does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do, some don't.

A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.

Then, how a phoneme is represented by a phone, or which allophone is to be used, is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs. But the choice of an allophone is not random or haphazard; it is rule-governed. One of the tasks of the phonologists is to find out these rules.

3.3 Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair(音位对立，互补分布和最小对立体)

3.5 Suprasegmental features --stress, tone, intonation（超切分特征：重音，音调，语调）

So far we have been dealing with the phonemes -- sound segments that distinguish meaning. But distinctive features can also be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features; these are the phonological properties of such units as the syllable(音节), the word, and the sentence. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone.

3.5.3Intonation:The falling tone, The rising tone, The fall-rise tone, The rise-fall tone.

Aim: It studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.

Morphology refers to the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.

"grammatical" or "functional'' words,conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronouns

Morphology thus refers to the study of the inter-nal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.

a) When the two words are in the same grammatical category, the compound will be in this category:

c) It is often the case that compounds have different stress patterns from the noncompounded word sequence., thus in

d) The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts. English language.

Aim: In this chapter we have first introduced word categories and phrase categories. Then we have focused on some of the fundamental mechanisms employed in the analysis of sentence formation. These include phrase structure rules that determine the architecture of a sentence's deep structure, sub-categorization information that ensures a match between heads and the complements with which they appear in syntactic structure, and transformations that can modify deep structure in various ways to produce a surface structure. Taken together, they make up an important part of our overall linguistic competence which enables us to combine words into sentences in endlessly novel(new) ways.

It studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.

Definition：Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.

Thus, a word's distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.

Determiners serve as the specifiers of Ns While qualifiers typically function as the specifiers of Vs and degree words as the specifiers of As and sometimes Ps.

The information about a word's complement is included in the head and termed subcategorization(次范畴化).

This rule also captures the simple but important fact that complements, however many there are, occur to the right of the head in English.

Definition: Still another kind of element we have not touched upon (talked about, discussed) so far is modifiers, which specify optionally expressible properties of heads. Although all lexical categories can have modifiers, we will focus here on the types of categories that can modify Ns and Vs.

This rule allows a modifier to occur either before the head or after it. Where there is a complement, a modifier that occurs after the head will normally occur to the right of the complement as well.

Marked by the symbol e ('empty') and called a trace(语迹), it records the fact that the moved element comes from the head position within S as shown below.

Aim: This chapter illustrates some views concerning the study of meaning and relationship among words and sentences.

Sense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning.

Sense(意义) is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in. For example, the word "dog" is given the definition" a domesticated canine mammal, occurring in many breeds that show a great variety in size and form". (Collins Dictionary of the English Language, 1979) This does not refer to any particular dog that exists in the real world, but applies to any animal that meets the features described in the definition. So this is the sense of the word "dog".

Reference (所指语义)means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. If we say "The dog is barking", we must be talking about a certain dog existent in the situation; the word "dog" refers to a dog known to both the speaker and the hearer. This is the reference of the word "dog" in this particular situation.

i.Dialectal synonyms -- synonyms used in different regional dialects 方言同义词

iii.Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning 表情意义和评价意义不同的同义词

Complete homonyms（完全同形异义词）: fast adj./fast v. scale n./scale v.

Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate（上坐标词，上义词）, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms（下义词）. Hyponyms of the same su- perordinate are co-hyponyms to each other, e.g.

Hyponymy is a relation of inclusion; in terms of meaning, the superordinate includes all its hyponyms.

Componential analysis（成分分析） is a way proposed by the structural semantieists to analyze word meaning. The approach is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features（语义特征）. This is parallel to the way a phoneme is analyzed into smaller components called distinctive features. Plus and minus signs are used to indicate whether a certain semantic feature is present or absent in the meaning of a word, and these feature symbols are usually written in capitalized letters. For example, the word "man" is analyzed as comprising the features of

Aim: This chapter studies such topics as related to language communication, including deixis, speech acts, indirect language, conversation, politeness, cross-cultural communication and presupposition.

Definition: Pragmatics can be defined in various ways. A general definition is that it is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.

Pragmatics: the notion of context was taken into consideration, if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics

Semantics: context is not considered, the study is confined to the area of traditional semantics

It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. Various components of shared knowledge have been identified, e.g. knowledge of the language they use, knowledge of what has been said before; knowledge about the world in general, knowledge about the specific situation in which linguistic communication is taking place, and knowledge about each other. Context determines the speaker's use of language and also the hearer's interpretation of what is said to him.

(6-3) It was a hot Christmas day so we went down to the beach in the afternoon and had a good time swimming and surfing.

Sentence(1) might be used in a conversation between two students talking about an examination, or two surgeons talking about an operation, or in some other contexts; (2) might be said by the speaker to ask the hearer to turn on the heater, or leave the place, or to put on more clothes, or to apologize for the poor condition of the room, depending on the situation of context; (3)makes sense only if the hearer has the knowledge that Christmas falls in summer in the southern hemisphere.

If we take it as a grammatical unit and consider it as a self-contained unit in isolation from context, then we are treating it as a sentence.

If we take it as something a speaker utters in a certain situation with a certain purpose, then we are treating it as an utterance.

The meaning of a sentence is abstract, anddecontextualizd, that of an utterance is concrete, and context dependent.

1. representatives（阐述类）: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true

3. commissives（承诺类）: committing the speaker himself to some future course of action

4. expressives（表述类）: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state

5. declarations（声明类）: bringing about immediate changes by saying something

Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.

1. Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of the exchange)