主干课程---《语言学》课程简介和大纲

二、教学时数分配

章目	教 学 内 容	教 学 时 数	教学方式 或 手 段	课 后 作 业
				思 考 题	练 习 题
1	Introduction	6	lecture & Discussion	Textbook	Textbook
2	Phonetics	2	lecture & Discussion	Textbook	Textbook
3	Phonology	2	lecture & Discussion	Textbook	Textbook
4	Morphology	4	lecture & Discussion	Textbook	Textbook
5	Syntax	8	Lecture & Discussion	Textbook	Textbook
6	Semantics	4	lecture & Discussion	Textbook	Textbook
7	Pragmatics	6	lecture & Discussion	Textbook	Textbook
合计		32		7	7

三、单元教学目的、教学重难点和内容设置

Chapter 1Introduction

Aim: To inform students of the basic knowledge about language.

1.1 Definition of linguistics:

•the scientific study of language

•(lingui-:language; -ics:science)

1.2. History of linguistics

•before the mid of 19th century: philology

••from the mid of 19thcentury: linguistics

1.2.1 Ferdinand de Saussure (索绪尔） C1857-1913

CSwiss linguist

CFamous for his book Course in General Linguistics

CPublished in 1916, after his death

CBased on lecture notes taken by students

CFather of modern linguistics

Important points:

Drew several very important distinctions in the study of language (see blow)

•Distinguish between synchronic and diachronic studies of language

Clanguage can be studied synchronically

Cdoes not need to consider history

•Distinguish between langue and paroleCtreat language as a system

Cdefine the units of language

Cstudy the relations among units and the rules of combination

••Synchronic study

Cstudy the language system at a given period

Ctreat the system as being static

Cconcentrate on one language and on the speaker’s knowledge of the language

••Diachronic study

Cstudy the language systems in different periods

Cconcentrate on how languages change

Coften needs to study several different languages

Languevs.parole

(language vs. speech)

-a property of the mind of each speaker

competence = knowledge of grammar•Performance

-actual realization of this knowledge in utterance

-influenced by psychological & social factors

•Theoretical linguistics (理论语言学)

CPhonetics

CPhonology

CMorphology

CSyntax

CSemantics

C*Pragmatics

2.1. Definition of language:

language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication

Difficult points:

2.2. Design features of language:

(1) Arbitrariness

（任意性）

-The combination of thesound and meaning of linguistic symbols is a social convention.

-there is no necessary or intrinsic connection between the symbols, and the meaning of the symbols

(2). Productivity （生成性）

-Productivity refers to the property that language enables language users to produce or understand an indefinite number of sentences including novel sentences.

-No one will have difficulty in understanding the sentence: “the terrorists will bomb the railway of Tokyo tomorrow.”

-But the communication systems of other animals are not productive.

(3)duality （双重性）:

language is composed of 2 systems.

system of sounds:meaningless, limited number

system of meanings:meaningful, relatively unlimited

(4). Displacement（移位性）

•-Displacement is the property of language that enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place.people can talk about things present,absent,in the past, in the future.

•(Queen Elizabeth Ⅰ)

(5).cultural transmission(文化传递性)

-Language and culture are closely related to each other.

-Language is passed on from generation to generation by learning rather by instinct.

-Language is culturally transmitted.

2.3.Functions of language

(what language is used for)

(1).phatic:

-Phatic function refers to language used for establishing anatmosphere or maintaining social contact rather than for exchanging information or ideas.

-Greeting,farewells, and comments on the weather server the function. Such as, “How are you?”, “A nice day, isn’t it?”

(2). Directive

-When language is used to get the hearer do something,it serves a directive function.

-Most imperative sentences are associated with this function. Such as in “come in, please.”, “Drop in any time you like.”

(3). Informative

- Language serves an informative function when it is used to to give information about facts, tell what the speaker believes.

- Most declarative sentences, as well as rhetorical questions are used to serve this function.

(4). Interrogative

-When language is used to get information from others, it serves an interrogative function.

-All the questions that expect answers serve this function. Such as , “what is your name?” or “Are you able to speak Japanese?”

(5). Expressive

-Expressive function is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings and attitudes of the speaker.

-In expressive function, language is used to evaluate and assert the speaker’s attitudes.

-Some ejaculations are the examples, such as, “oh, my God!” or “The man is leaving ,I wish to God he would go!”

(6). Evocative

-Evocative function is the use of language to create certain feeling in the hearer.

-Evocative function aims to amuse, startle, anger, soothe, worry, or please the hearer.

-Jokes, advertising, propaganda are used to serve the evocative function of language. Such as,

Coke refreshes you like no other can.

If it is got to be clean, it’s got to be tide.

(7). Performative

-When language is used to “do things”, , to perform actions, it serves the performative function.

-With the sentences being uttered, the act can be performed, such as, “I declare the exam is cancelled.” or ‘ I declare the class is over.”

Chapter 2Phonetics

Aim: Language is first perceived through its sounds.Thus the study of sounds is of great importance in linguistics.

Contents:

2.1. Definition of Phonetics:

Phonetics is the scientific study of speech sounds

CDeals with speech sounds

CConcerns all possible sounds humans can make

2.2. The three main branches of Phonetics:

•Articulatory (发音) Phonetics:

Cthe study of the production of speech sound.

•Acoustic (声学) Phonetics:

Cthe study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech.

•Auditory (听觉) Phonetics:

Cthe perception of speech sounds.

2.3Speech Organs

Lips (labia唇),Teeth (dentes齿), Tooth-ridge (alveoli齿龈),Hard palate ( 硬腭)

Soft palate (velum软腭),Uvula （小舌),Tip of tongue （舌尖）,Blade of tongue (舌面), Front of tongue (舌前部),Back of tongue (舌后部),Tongue root (舌根)

Pharynx (声门),Vocal cords （声带),Nasal cavity （鼻腔）,Oral cavity （口腔）

Epiglottis (会厌),Tongue (lingua) (舌)

Important points:

2.4. Phonetic transcription (注音)

•A sound may have many variations

Example 1:

•[p] in peak is aspirated  [ph]

•[p] in speak is unaspirated  [p=] or simply [p]

Example 2:

•[l] in lead is clear [l]

•[l] in deal is dark  [ł]

•Symbols for such more specific sounds are called diacritics (变音符)

Narrow transcription& Broad transcription

•Narrow transcription:

Cuse more, specific symbols,i.e. diacratics

•Broad transcription:

CUse ordinary symbols

Example: help

Broad transcription: [help]

Narrow transcription: [hełph]

Commonly used diacratics:。. ~

2.5. The English sounds

•Consonants (辅音）

CObstruction of air flow

CE.g. [b], [k], [d], …

C[+voiced][-voiced]

•Vowels　（元音）

CNo air obstruction

CE.g. [i] [e] [au], …

Difficult points:

2.5.1 Consonants (辅音)

1. Place of articulation

CBilabials (双唇音)

CLabiodentals (唇齿音）

CDentals (齿音)

CAlveolars (齿龈音)

CPostalveolars (上齿龈）

CPalatals (上腭音）

CRetroflex (卷舌音)

CVelars (软腭音）

CGlottals (喉音)

2. Manner of articulation

CStops/Plosives (闭塞／爆破）

CFricatives (摩擦音）

CAffricates (塞擦音)

CLaterals (侧音)

CApproximants (近音)

CNasals (鼻音)

2.5.2Vowels

Ccriteria (parameters)of vowel description:

①the position of highest part of the tongue:

•front, central, back

•②the height of tongue raising:

•high, middle, low

(the openness of the mouth: close,semi-close,semi-open,open)

•③the shape of the lips (the degree of lip-rounding ) : rounded, unrounded

•④the length or tenseness of the vowel : tense vs. lax or long vs. short

Consonants

Vowels

More vowels

•Lax vowels (松元音) － i ，e，æ，u， כ， 

•Tense vowels (紧元音)－ei， i:，u:， כ:，a:

•Round vowels (圆唇音)－ u:， u， כ: ， כ，

•Unrounded vowels(非圆唇音)－ ei， i:， i ，e，æ ，a:

•Diphthongs (双元音)

Cәaiכiau …

Chapter 3Phonology

Aim:Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.

3.1Phonology and phonetics

Both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the same aspect of language -- the speech sounds. But while both are related to the study of sounds, they differ in their approach and focus. As we have seen in the last section, phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc.

Important points:

3.2 Phone, phoneme, and allophone（音素，音位，音位变体）

A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. But a phone does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do, some don't.

A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.

Then, how a phoneme is represented by a phone, or which allophone is to be used, is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs. But the choice of an allophone is not random or haphazard; it is rule-governed. One of the tasks of the phonologists is to find out these rules.

3.3 Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair(音位对立，互补分布和最小对立体)

3.4Some rules in phonology

3.4.1Sequential rules

3.4.2Assimilation rule

3.4.3Deletion rule

Difficult points:

3.5 Suprasegmental features --stress, tone, intonation（超切分特征：重音，音调，语调）

So far we have been dealing with the phonemes -- sound segments that distinguish meaning. But distinctive features can also be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features; these are the phonological properties of such units as the syllable(音节), the word, and the sentence. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone.

3.5.1Stress

example:contractimportincrease

risingtunefalling tune

3.5.2Tone:阴平:level,阳平:rise, 上声:fall-rise, 去声:fall

3.5.3Intonation:The falling tone, The rising tone, The fall-rise tone, The rise-fall tone.

Chapter 4Morphology

Aim: It studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.

Important points:

4.1Morphology

Morphology refers to the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.

4.1.1Open class and closed class

content words(实义词)nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs

open class words(开放性词类)

"grammatical" or "functional'' words,conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronouns

closed class words

Part of speech词类

4.1.2Internal structure of words and rules for word formation

Examples:

AB

likedislike

orderdisorder

appeardisappear

approvedisapprove

agreedisagree

ad va n tagesdisadvantages

entangledisentangle

Morphology thus refers to the study of the inter-nal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.

4.2 Morphemes -- the minimal units of meaning (词素―最小的意义单位)

prefixes

suffixes

bound morphemes

free morphemes

self

selfless

selflessly

selflessness

selfishselfishnessunselfishunselfishnessunselfishly

attendence

4.3 Derivational and inflectional morphemes (派生词素和曲折词素)

infinitive marker

Difficult points:

4.4 Morphological rules of word formation

Morphological rules 词素音位规则

Productive Morphological rules 生产性词素音位规则

4.5 Compounds

Some noteworthy rules:

a) When the two words are in the same grammatical category, the compound will be in this category:

b) In many cases, the two words fall into different categories.

c) It is often the case that compounds have different stress patterns from the noncompounded word sequence., thus in

d) The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts. English language.

Chapter 5Syntax

Aim: In this chapter we have first introduced word categories and phrase categories. Then we have focused on some of the fundamental mechanisms employed in the analysis of sentence formation. These include phrase structure rules that determine the architecture of a sentence's deep structure, sub-categorization information that ensures a match between heads and the complements with which they appear in syntactic structure, and transformations that can modify deep structure in various ways to produce a surface structure. Taken together, they make up an important part of our overall linguistic competence which enables us to combine words into sentences in endlessly novel(new) ways.

5.1What is syntax?

It studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.

Transformationalsyntax

5.2 Categories

5.2.1Word-level categories

Definition：Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.

word-level categories（词法范畴）

syntactic categories（句法范畴）

affixes（词缀）：prefix， suffix

parts of speech（词类）

determiner (Det)限定词

degree words (Deg) 程度词

qualifier (Qual)修饰词

major lexical categories

minor lexical categories

Three criteria to determine words’ category:

meaning (词义)

inflection (曲折变化)

distribution (分布)

Thus, a word's distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.

Important points:

5.2.2.Phrase categories and their structures

NP (noun phrase)

VP (verb phrase)

AP (adjective phrase)

PP (prepositional phrase)

Two levels: word levelphrase level

Elements of a phrase:

head（中心成分）

specifier（标志成分）

complement（补足成分）

Examples:

a cup of tea

all the people of China

5.3 Phrase structure rule

NP:a story about a sentimental girl

VP:often have noodles for lunch

AP:very hot in summer

PP:without hesitation

5.3.1XP rule（X短语规则）

The XP rule:XP(specifier)X(completement)

5.3.2X- Theory（X标杆理论）

5.3.3 Coordination rule

5.4 Phrase elements

5.4.1 Specifiers标志成分

semantic roles 语义功能

syntacticroles句法功能

Determiners serve as the specifiers of Ns While qualifiers typically function as the specifiers of Vs and degree words as the specifiers of As and sometimes Ps.

5.4.2 Complements

The information about a word's complement is included in the head and termed subcategorization(次范畴化).

Tree structure

The XP Rule (revised)

XP(Specifier) X (Complement*)

a story about a sentimental girl in India in the 1960s

This rule also captures the simple but important fact that complements, however many there are, occur to the right of the head in English.

complementizers(补语化成分) (Cs).

complement clause(补语从句)

complement phrase(补语短语) (CP)

matrix clause(主句)

Example:

Miss Herbert believes that she will win.

5.4.3 Modifiers

Definition: Still another kind of element we have not touched upon (talked about, discussed) so far is modifiers, which specify optionally expressible properties of heads. Although all lexical categories can have modifiers, we will focus here on the types of categories that can modify Ns and Vs.

The Expanded XP rule:

XP(Spec) (Mod) X (Complement*) (Mod)

This rule allows a modifier to occur either before the head or after it. Where there is a complement, a modifier that occurs after the head will normally occur to the right of the complement as well.

5.5 Sentences (The S rule)(句子)(S规则)

The S rule:

SNP VP

The boy had an apple.

A boy found the evidence.

abstract category inflection (抽象的范畴曲折)

(dubbed 'Infl') or shortened'Infl'

Difficult points:

5.6 Transformations(转换)

syntactic movement 句法移位

accommodate: suit to; adapt to

5.6. 1Auxiliary movement 助动词移位

Inversion:

Move Infl to the left of the subject NP.

Inversion (revised):

Move Infl to C.

Example:Will the train arrive?

Marked by the symbol e ('empty') and called a trace(语迹), it records the fact that the moved element comes from the head position within S as shown below.

head movement.(中心移位)

5.6.2 Do insertion (插入DO)

Do insertion

Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position.

Birds fly.

Birds do fly.

Do birds fly?

5.6.3 Deep structure and surface structure

deep structure (or D-structure)

surface structure (or S-structure)

5.6.4 Wh Movement(WH移位)

What lanuages can you speak?

What can you talk about?

you can speak What lanuages.

you can talk about What.

5.6.5 Move α and constraints on transformations (α移位及转换制约)

Summary:



Chapter 6Semantics

Aim: This chapter illustrates some views concerning the study of meaning and relationship among words and sentences.

6.1 What is semantics?

Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning.

6.2What is meaning?

Some views concerning the study of meaning

The naming theory 命名论

The conceptualist view概念论

Contextualism 语境理论

Behaviorism行为主义理论

Examples: black

Black hair 黑头发black coffee 清咖啡

Black tea 红茶

White snow 白雪white coffee 加牛奶的咖啡

White liewhite elehpant

Once in a blue moon.

The seal could not be found.

The seal could not be found in the office.stamp

The seal could not be found in the zoo.Marine animal

Important points:

6.3Lexical meaning

6.3.1Sense and reference

Sense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning.

Sense(意义) is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in. For example, the word "dog" is given the definition" a domesticated canine mammal, occurring in many breeds that show a great variety in size and form". (Collins Dictionary of the English Language, 1979) This does not refer to any particular dog that exists in the real world, but applies to any animal that meets the features described in the definition. So this is the sense of the word "dog".

Reference (所指语义)means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. If we say "The dog is barking", we must be talking about a certain dog existent in the situation; the word "dog" refers to a dog known to both the speaker and the hearer. This is the reference of the word "dog" in this particular situation.

A very good example:

morning star

evening star

6.3.2 Major sense relations

6.3.2.1Synonymy

i.Dialectal synonyms -- synonyms used in different regional dialects 方言同义词

ii.Stylistic synonyms -- synonyms differing in style 文体同义词

iii.Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning 表情意义和评价意义不同的同义词

iv.Collocational synonyms 搭配同义词

v.Semantically different synonyms 语义不同的同义词

6.3.2.2 Polysemy

We eat what we can and we can what we cannot eat.

I saw a saw hanging on the wall.

6.3.2.3 Homonymy同音异义词

Homophones（同音异义词）: rain/reign night/knight piece/peace leak/leek

Homographs（同形异义词）: bow v./bow n. tear v./tear n. lead v./lead n

Complete homonyms（完全同形异义词）: fast adj./fast v. scale n./scale v.

6.3.2.4 Hyponymy 下义关系

Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate（上坐标词，上义词）, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms（下义词）. Hyponyms of the same su- perordinate are co-hyponyms to each other, e.g.

Superordinate: flower

Hyponyms: rose, tulip, carnation, lily, morning glory ...

Superordinate: animal

Hyponyms: dog, cat, tiger, lion, wolf, elephant, fox, bear ...

Superordinate: furniture

Hyponyms: bed, table, desk, dresser, wardrobe, settee ...

Hyponymy is a relation of inclusion; in terms of meaning, the superordinate includes all its hyponyms.

6.3.2.5 Antonymy

i. Gradable antonyms可分等级的反义词

ii. Complementary antonyms互补反义词

iii. Relational opposites关系反义词

Difficult points:

6.4 Sense relations between sentences句际语义关系

i. X is synonymous with Y.X与Y同义

ii. X is inconsistent with Y. X与Y不一致

iii. X entails Y(Y is an entailment of X)蕴涵关系

iv. X presupposes Y (Y is a prerequisite of X )前提预设

v. X is a contradiction 矛盾关系

vi. X is semantically anomalous 语义异常

6.5Analysis of meaning语义分析

6.5.1Componential analysis（成分分析） --a way to analyze lexicai meaning

Componential analysis（成分分析） is a way proposed by the structural semantieists to analyze word meaning. The approach is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features（语义特征）. This is parallel to the way a phoneme is analyzed into smaller components called distinctive features. Plus and minus signs are used to indicate whether a certain semantic feature is present or absent in the meaning of a word, and these feature symbols are usually written in capitalized letters. For example, the word "man" is analyzed as comprising the features of

man：+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, + MALE.

Woman: +HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, - MALE.

Father: +HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, + MALE.

Boy: +HUMAN, -ADULT, +ANIMATE, + MALE.

6.5.2Predication analysis---a way to analyze sentence meaning

selectional restrictions

the British linguist G. Leech.

Predication述谓结构

statements陈述句

imperative 祈使句

interrogative 疑问句

argument(s)（变元，中项）

predicate 谓词

two-place predication (双位述谓结构)

one-place predication （单位述谓结构）

no-place predication（缺位述谓结构）

Chapter 7Pragmatics

Aim: This chapter studies such topics as related to language communication, including deixis, speech acts, indirect language, conversation, politeness, cross-cultural communication and presupposition.

7.1Some basic notions

7.1.1Definition

Definition: Pragmatics can be defined in various ways. A general definition is that it is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.

The scope of pragmatics:

language communication语言交际

deixis (定冠词、指示代词等)指示词

speech acts言语行为

indirect language间接语言

conversation 对话

politeness 礼貌

cross-cultural communication 跨文化交际

presupposition 前提

Important points:

7.1.2 Pragmatics vs. semantics

Saussure索绪尔

Course in General Linguistics《普通语言学教程》

Pragmatics: the notion of context was taken into consideration, if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics

Semantics: context is not considered, the study is confined to the area of traditional semantics

7.1.3 Context

It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. Various components of shared knowledge have been identified, e.g. knowledge of the language they use, knowledge of what has been said before; knowledge about the world in general, knowledge about the specific situation in which linguistic communication is taking place, and knowledge about each other. Context determines the speaker's use of language and also the hearer's interpretation of what is said to him.

Look at the following sentences:

(6-1) How did it go?

(6-2) It is cold in here.

(6-3) It was a hot Christmas day so we went down to the beach in the afternoon and had a good time swimming and surfing.

Sentence(1) might be used in a conversation between two students talking about an examination, or two surgeons talking about an operation, or in some other contexts; (2) might be said by the speaker to ask the hearer to turn on the heater, or leave the place, or to put on more clothes, or to apologize for the poor condition of the room, depending on the situation of context; (3)makes sense only if the hearer has the knowledge that Christmas falls in summer in the southern hemisphere.

7.1.4 Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning

If we take it as a grammatical unit and consider it as a self-contained unit in isolation from context, then we are treating it as a sentence.

If we take it as something a speaker utters in a certain situation with a certain purpose, then we are treating it as an utterance.

The meaning of a sentence is abstract, anddecontextualizd, that of an utterance is concrete, and context dependent.

How to interpret the meaning of “My bag is heavy?”

Difficult points:

7.2 Speech act theory

7.2.1 Austin's model of speech acts

constatives述事话语

performatives行事话语

locutionary act 言内行为

illocutionary act言外行为

and perlocutionary act言后行为

7.2.2 Searle's classification of speech acts Searle's的言语行为分类

1. representatives（阐述类）: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true

2. directives（指令类）: trying to get the hearer to do something

3. commissives（承诺类）: committing the speaker himself to some future course of action

4. expressives（表述类）: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state

5. declarations（声明类）: bringing about immediate changes by saying something

7.3Principle of conversation会话原则

Paul Grice

Cooperative Principle（CP）

Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.

The maxim of quantity（数量准则）

1. Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of the exchange)

2. Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.

The maxim of quality（质量准则）

1. Do not say what you believe to be false.

2. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.

The maxim of relation（关联准则）

Be relevant

The maxim of manner（方式准则）

1. Avoid obscurity of expression.

2. Avoid ambiguity.

3. Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity).

4. Be orderly.

conversational implicature会话含义